British Petroleum (BP) Strategic Change Management

British Petroleum (BP) Strategic Change Management BP is most widely associated with its fuel stations and forecourt retail operations; it also has a wide range of activities. The exploration of oils, gas, extraction, transportation, and the processing and selling of fuels. Bp has developed a low carbon energy strategy such as wind farms and solar power. BP operates the Wild Bean Cafà © brand in the UK, Europe, South Africa and Australia. The convenience store brand is also in the US. However, Wild Bean Cafà ©s are focused on quality food and coffee, having a strategy of differentiation from competitors offering poorer quality Refreshments. 1.1.1. Companys Mission The company aims to be competitive on the low pricing of its fuels, and this is evident on garage forecourts where drops in oil prices have been passed on to their consumers more rapidly than some of its competitors. In all BPs activities they seek to display some unchanging fundamental qualities, integrity, honesty, honest dealing treating everyone with respect and dignity, striving for mutual advantage and contributing to human progress. The group aims To have the best competitive corporate, operating and financial performance. To improve and to be accessible, inclusive and diverse. To engage the creative talents of their employees, and develop and apply leading Cost- effective technology and intellectual creative to enhance innovation and new ideas. To carry on its business in an environmentally responsible manner, and develop cleaner energy and renewable energy sources. The group is committed to the responsible treatment of the planets resources and to the development of sources of lower- carbon energy. BP expresses that their group value fewer than four headings Performance People and capability Health, safety and environment External relationships GROUP VALUE PERFORMANCE Compliance with the law and ethics > to comply with all applicable laws and regulations in each jurisdiction in which the group operates. All BP employees will be required to comply with the code of conduct, which prohibits illegal, corrupt or unethical practices and high standards of decency. Continuous improvement > improve continuously in pursuit of the group values by setting targets and through encouragement of our employees. Internal targets > to establish realistic and reasonable targets in the group plan. Any Progress against targets will be reported internally and analysed transparently and in a timely manner so that progress and variations can be understood voluntarily. PEOPLE AND CAPABILITY Human capability and technology > to nurture human capability and ensure that the right technology, skills, behaviours and intellectual property are available for the pursuit of the broad goals. 1.1.2. Challenges BP is currently underperforming due to TNK BP in Russia is currently experiencing power struggles between British executives running it and Russian billionaire shareholders Its safety record has been questioned The company has experienced an explosion at the Buncefield in 2005 which killed 15workers and the spill in the United States of America which caused pollution. The company has also lost consumer confidence. Financial problems Bp also has been responsible for the spill in the Gulf of Mexico (Online). TASK 1 Understand issues relating to strategic change in an organisation The importance of strategic change management in any organisation cannot be overemphasised. Change management has increasingly become a necessary business concept among business firms especially in the wake of the recent dynamic global business environment. Strategy is the direction and the scope of an organisation over the long term, which achieves advantage in a changing environment through its configuration of resources and competences with the aim of fulfilling stakeholder expectations. Strategic change management is a systematic approach to dealing with change, both from the perspective of an organisation and on the individual level including adapting to change, controlling change, and effective change. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE GURUS Julia Bologun (2001) describes strategic change as Arising from management trends such as culture change, business process swings, empowerment and total quality. Other change initiatives are driven by the need for organisations to reposition themselves in the wake of changing competitive business conditions. Strategic change is context specific in any organisation and the way it is managed has no simple formula or universally agreed framework that will work in all cases (Bologun, 2001). Organisations have different challenges and issues that affect them and when the change process is deemed necessary to undertake, the roadmap is always different per case study. Different theorists have made attempts by giving and emphasised that strategy must be context sensitive. The culture web framework is introduced as a means of addressing the softer issues, which is a critical first step, as barriers to change must be identified. The strategy kaleidoscope will help managers to understand the change context and plan for transition. According to Gray Hampel his refered strategies as Strategic decay the notion that the value of all strategies, no matter how brilliant decays overtime. (Gray Hampel 2000) Abell.D also came up with his own understanding of strategy as Strategic windows and stressed the importance of the timing both entrance and exit of any given strategy (Abell .D 1978). Henry Mintzberg looked at the changing world around him and concluded that there are five types of strategies (Henry Mintzberg 1988) Strategy as plan Strategy as ploy Strategy as pattern Strategy as position Strategy as perspective The entire three theorists were talking about the equivalent things to which I do agree with. For an organisation such as BP to prevail in this ever changing market their strategies have to change and not stick to the same strategy for too long because it wont be as effective as it was, timing is of importance to an organisation, where and planning, of the strategy is vital. AC2.1 Examine the need for strategic change in BP All organisations are currently undergoing some type of change. Many of the organisation change programmes arising from management fads such as customs change, business process engineering, empowerment and total quality, branding, reputation. For instance BP had the need to change because of its Experience of controversies regarding business practices, environmental damage, and hazards to workers. Other large energy companies have come under fire for releasing huge amounts of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. For some time, BP is trying to turn a new leaf in its history book toward a more environmentally-friendly future through investments in renewable energy and a support of ethics and compliance initiatives. British Petroleum changed its name to BP and then tried to rebrand itself as Beyond Petroleum. As an organisation its important to change with time and surroundings. There is need for change because of the external and internal developments and internal factors. These factors bring attention to the organisation to formulate and implement strategies to survive in the competitive market. There is need for strategic change because it  is also necessary in order to gain competitive advantage  enables the organisation to be focused  also enables adaptability BP has been able to enjoy a large market share and gain competitive advantage over its competitors because of accepting to change with its surroundings and by learning what its customers need and want from them as a company. Change has also enabled Bp to adapt in any environment; For example the company has gone green to protect the environment and have become the big campaigners for going green and change has also enabled the organisation to be focused on what is important to their stakeholders. AC2.2 Assess the factors that are driving the driving the need for strategic change According to Johnson, Scholes, Whittington (2006) the major influence of change in organisations is categorised as six factors namely Political, Economic, Social, Technology, Environment, and Legal otherwise known as the PESTEL framework P- POLITICAL: Government stability, Taxation policy, foreign trade regulations and the social welfare policies. E-ECONOMIC: Business cycles, GNP trends, interest rates, Money supply, inflation, unemployment, and disposable income. S-SOCIO-CULTURAL: Analyzing the population demographics, income mobility, life style changes, Attitudes to work and leisure, Consumerism, levels of education. T-TECHNOLOGY: Has unleashed a process that has been called perennial gale of creative destruction.Technological change can make established products obsolete overnight and simultaneously create host new product possibilities. Thus technological change is both creative and destructive both an opportunity and a threat. E-ENVIRONMENT: specifically stands for green issues, such as pollution and waste. L-LEGAL: embraces legislative constraints or changes, such as health and safety legislation or restrictions on company mergers and acquisitions. INTERNAL The employment of a new leader. Benchmarking exercise against external organisation Senior management dissatisfaction with the status equo Employee -Management conflict. Bp has been affected by the political and the environmental aspect. It had a spill in the USA which had an intervention of the politicians. The organisation had to respond to the demands and controversy from the media, consumer and politicians of the state by changing alot of its strategies in place. BP agreed to the demands of the politicians (foreign trade regulations and social welfare policies) to compensate the residents affected by the spillage. All these problems needed Bp to change its strategies. The world is advancing in technology and for it to compete in the ever changing business world, Bp has to be ready to change and adapt to those changes. The organisation has come up with programs that can help its staff to have knowledge of the new and advancing technology; For instance they needed to improve on the machinery that they use to drill. Bp has advanced in technology by using sophisticated technologies and tried- and true techniques to be able to find oil and gas. The company also incurred a loss when they lost alot of oil in the spillage which affected their financial situation. The spillage affected their market share by its price dropping in the global market; the other factor which affected Bp was the environmental factor. The spillage polluted the water and hence affecting the residents livelihood and it also affected the wildlife. BP had to come up with a strategy to stop the spillage which resulted to large sums of money being spent. Bp has changed and responded to change by striving to secure and make sure that it isnt affecting the environment since they are big campaigners of climate change and going green. In the case of BP, management was dissatisfied with the way Tony Hayward Group Chief Executive handled the Mexico oil spillage. Tony Hayward resigned and this called for replacement of new management. A.C2.3 Assess the resource implications of the organisation not responding to change There are severe resource implications to an organisation such as BP for not responding to strategic change. The response should be implemented at the right time and BPs call to sort out the spillage needed a response at the time; had they not responded and acted as efficient as possible their reputation would have been damaged further. If BP as an organisation does not respond to change, this will affect its entire resources adversely. Human resources normally includes the Restructuring Redundancies Interviewing Hiring Training Layoffs Physical resources mainly affect the non-current assets of an organisation such as Equipment Vehicles buildings reputation Financial resources have an impact and it may also have a huge one on the Costs of training Redundancy costs Relocation costs New building Refurbishments of existing buildings For BP to manage the changes effectively, Human Resource has to implement strategies that would enhance change: Training is a vital aspect of human resource and ensuring that its members of staff and employees are well trained. The organisation bought together a project team to develop Andrew oilfield, located in the North Sea. Since discovery about 20 years earlier, attempts had been made to develop the field, but each conceptual plan floundered and Andrew had gained a reputation as being too difficult to achieve economic sanction. Bp brought in consultants who coached Bp engineers and contractors in ways of working together and think out of the box to solve Andrews technical and economic problems Interviewing is paramount for the succession of Bps organisational aims and objectives. Bp has to have the right employees in place so as to be able to compete with its competitors in the ever changing environment A.C 3.1 DEVELOPING SYSTEMS TO INVOVLE STAKEHOLDERS IN BP Stakeholder is a person, group, or organisation that has direct or indirect stake in an organisation because it can affect or be affected by the organisations actions, objectives and policies. Stakeholders in every organisation play a very important role in day to day running of an organisation. It is vital to develop a system that involves stakeholders in the planning of change. The systems need to be appropriate, applicable and workable in the organisation chosen. Most importantly concentration must be devoted to the most influential stakeholder. Stakeholders include Government, suppliers, competitors, owners, customers, unions and these can be internal stakeholders or external stakeholders. Its important for Bp to have knowledge of its business surroundings for them to identify market segments to fulfil customer need. The expectations of BP will certainly be an increase in profit maximisation, growth in market share, capital investment, high product quality and high quality performance. Systems to involve stakeholders A system is a structured collection of parts that are highly incorporated to accomplish an overall goal. The system has various inputs, which go through certain processes to generate certain outputs, which collectively, accomplish the overall required goal for the system. So a system usually brings in stakeholders to perform in different aspects to achieve organisational objectives. (Online) Configuration system An organisations configuration consists of the structure, processes and relationships in the course of which the organisation operates. The reason for configuring challenges is vital to organisational success. Functional structure- Once an organisation grows beyond a very basic level of size and complexity, it has to start dividing responsibilities. This system is based on the primary activities that have to be undertaken by an organisation such as production, finance and accounting, marketing, human resource and research and development. Convergence system- This is where previously separate industries begin to overlap in terms of activities, technologies, products and customers. (G. Johnson et al 2008) A.C3.2 Develop a change management strategy with stakeholders Management strategy is an arrangement to manage stakeholders according to the level of power and level of interest. It is a key concept for business to survive /grow by responding to any environmental changes. A strategy is the direction and scale of an organisation over the long term, which achieves advantage in a changing environment throughout its configuration of resources and competences with the aim of satisfying stakeholder expectations. STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS (MAPPING) Stakeholder analysis helps an organisation to define whom to try to involve when designing a process of change. It also helps to determine in which way and how to include the stakeholder in the organisation. The process allows the organisation to find out whose information needs should be considered. A KEY PLAYERS Involve them Increase effort and level of interest B KEEP INFORMED Engage and update Involve C KEEP SATISFIED Lest important Communication and update D MINIMAL EFFORT Participate Increase level of interest The stakeholder analysis has two axis and four quadrants: The x axis represents influence The y axis denotes power The quadrants are: HH high high HL high low LH and LL low high and low low High power, interested people these are the people you must fully keep and make the greatest efforts to satisfy. High power, less interested people: put enough work in with people to keep them satisfied, but not so much that they become uninterested with the message. Low power, less interested people keep these people adequately informed, and talk to them to ensure that no major issues are arising. These people can often be very helpful with the detail of your project. Low power, less interested people: again, monitor these people, but do not turn them off with undue communication For the analysis to be effective the following should be carried out: Their interests, values, and concerns What sources of stakeholder power What claims they might make on the organisation Who the most important stakeholders are from the organisations perspective Map the relationship between them Identify the resultant strategic challenges A.C3.3 Evaluate the systems used to involve stakeholders in the planning of change Six steps need to be taken into consideration so as to involve stakeholders in the planning of change: Indentify: who the stakeholders are (government, customers, investors, suppliers) Prioritise: Stakeholders will have varying degrees of power, influence and interest in planning. Its important to identify, prioritise and understand the impact they will have on the decisions made. Map their profiles: This will show their different responsibility and who will have greater influence on the stakeholders. Develop an engagement strategy: one way of engaging with the stakeholder is by using a stakeholder light traffic strategy. Using the traffic light image is a useful way to flag up what strategy is appropriate with the different relationships in place at any given time. Optimise their support to make good of the support they are giving you in the planning of change. This is by ensuring that you keep those stakeholders satisfied. Monitor changes to ensure that any changes are put across to those stakeholders. Its important to give frequent updates. BP stakeholders can be involved through meetings such as the Annual general meetings where all aspects of the company are discussed with members of the BP board and Carl- Henric Syanberg as chairman. The chairman informs other stakeholders on the different plans and issues that were discussed by board and what projects they were ready to take as an organisation as an organisation. Change in Bp happens all the time and I think that out of the four systems I have picked the stakeholder analysis because it is effective and it gets involves all stakeholders and Bp is able to operate for the best intentions of its stakeholders. A.C3.4 Create a strategy for managing resistance to change In every company there are forces involved when a company decides to adopt new strategies. There are resistive and driving forces. In this case the resistive forces are those that dont want to accept any kind of change brought about in the company and sometimes there those who are in the favour of change. Its important to put in place strategies of how to manage any resistance going on in the organisation INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCE Individually, people may resist, although this is generally limited to the extent of their personal power. For those with lower power, this may include passive refusals and covert action. For those with more power, it can include open challenge and criticism. COLLECTIVE RESISTANCE When people find a common voice in organized resistance, and then their words and actions can create a significant threat to the change, even though they are individually less powerful. An organised resistance is usually a sign of a deep divide. People will not go to the bother of organizing unless they have serious issues with the change. PASSIVE RESISTANCE Passive resistance occurs where people do not take specific actions. At meetings, they will sit quietly and may appear to agree with the change. They may agree and then do nothing to fulfil their commitments. ACTIVE RESISTANCE- Occurs where people are taking specific and deliberate action to resist the change. It may be overt, with such public statements and acts of resistance, and it may be covert, such as mobilizing others to create an underground resistance movement. 1-Participation and involvement: Is a strategy which is used when dealing with key stakeholders of the organisation. Participation and involvement is usually adopted when the key stakeholders are neither keen nor interested in company matters and every time the company tries to adopt change for the benefit of the company they resist that change. Using such a strategy can be very helpful to achieve the objectives and on the other hand it is time consuming for the company. 2-Education and communication: Is a strategy which is applied when stakeholders are not aware of benefit of the strategy. Its important to educate and communicate with the stakeholders so as to get them to understand the reason for the change. The major advantage of the strategy is that the stakeholders will cooperate productively and positively. Using this strategy can be time consuming and costly too. 3-Negotiation and compromise: The strategy of negotiation and compromise take place when there is a group division. By this strategy a company convince the both groups at working together for the benefit of company. Its also promotes unity which is very good for a company. It is cost effective. The current situation for Bp Company is not good because there is division of groups. This groups are the Russian shareholder and the British shareholder. This means that there can be experiences of groups opposing each others opinions hence bringing about resistance for change. In my opinion if BP as a Company has to sustain their rank in international market then they should work together and be united as an organization. Stakeholders should be ready compromise for the benefit of the company. TASK2 AC 1.1 Discuss models of strategic changes There are many theories about how to accomplish change. Many begin with leadership and change management guru, John Kotter. A professor at Harvard Business School and world-renowned change expert, Kotter introduced eight-step change process.(Lecture Notes) Step One: Create Urgency For change to happen, it helps if the whole company really wants it. Develop a sense of urgency around the need for change. This may help you spark the initial motivation to get things moving. This isnt simply a matter of showing people poor sales statistics or talking about increased competition. Open an honest and convincing dialogue about whats happening in the marketplace and with your competition. If many people start talking about the change you propose, the urgency can build and feed on itself. Step Two: Form a Powerful Coalition Convince people that change is necessary. This often takes strong leadership and visible support from key people within your organization. Managing change isnt enough you have to lead it. Step Three: Create a Vision for Change When you first start thinking about change, there will probably be many great ideas and solutions floating around. Link these concepts to an overall vision that people can grasp easily and remember Step Four: Communicate the Vision What you do with your vision after you create it will determine your success. Your message will probably have strong competition from other day-to-day communications within the company, so you need to communicate it frequently and powerfully, and embed it within everything that you do. Step Five: Remove Obstacles If you follow these steps and reach this point in the change process, youve been talking about your vision and building buy-in from all levels of the organization. Hopefully, your staff wants to get busy and achieve the benefits that youve been promoting. Six: Create Short-term Wins Nothing motivates more than success. Give your company a taste of victory early in the change process. Within a short time frame (this could be a month or a year, depending on the type of change), youll want to have results that your staff can see. Without this, critics and negative thinkers might hurt your progress. Step seven Build on the Change Kotter argues that many change projects fail because victory is declared too early. Real change runs deep. Quick wins are only the beginning of what needs to be done to achieve long-term change. Step Eight: Anchor the Changes in Corporate Culture the market Finally, to make any change stick, it should become part of the core of your organization. Your corporate culture often determines what gets done, so the values behind your vision must show in day-to-day work. (Lecture class) Models of Strategic Change Lewins Change Management Model was developed in the 1950s by a psychologist named Kurt Lewin (Syque, 2007). According to Lewin for change to occur in an organisation he looked at three stages, which are still widely used today: unfreeze, transition, and refreeze. Unfreeze Most people tend to stay within certain comfortable zones and are usually hesitant of change. Employees tend to become comfortable in this unchanging environment and become uncomfortable when any change occurs, even if it is not a major one. To overcome this frozen state, we must initiate an unfreeze period, which is done through motivation. Motivation is important in any organisation, even when it is not changing. Transition -This period is when the change is occurring, which is a voyage and not a step. The transition period takes time because employees dislike change. This is when leadership transition period is good for the company as well as the employees. Refreeze At the end of the transitional voyage, comes the next stage refreeze. At this stage its where the company once again becomes stable. BP has encountered several problems but they have been able to change with its challenging and demanding surroundings. BP as a company has changed its strategies for it to survive in this competitive business world. As an organisation there has been need for change and it has improvised strategies, so as to adapt to this ever changing world AC1.2 Evaluate the relevance of models of strategic change to BP in the current economy All organisations are currently undergoing some type of change. Many of the organisation change programmes arising from management fads such as customs change, business process engineering, empowerment and total quality, branding, reputation. For instance BP had the need to change because of its Experience of controversies regarding business practices, environmental damage, and hazards to workers. Other large energy companies have come under fire for releasing huge amounts of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. For some time, BP is trying to turn a new leaf in its history book toward a more environmentally-friendly future through investments in renewable energy and a support of ethics and compliance initiatives. British Petroleum changed its name to BP and then tried to rebrand itself as Beyond Petroleum. The different models of strategic change are of relevance in the current economy because the group will be able to compete with other oil companies such as Shell strategically. These models assist on the sustainability of the group, the growth of the group and the market share by using the different models. AC1.3 Assess the value of using strategic intervention techniques in organisations Contingency Theory There are many forms of contingency theory. Contingency theories are a class of behavioural theory that challenge that there is no one best way of organising or leading and that an organisational or leadership style that is efficient in some situations may not be successful in others (Fiedler, 1964). In other words: The most favourable organisation or leadership style is dependent upon various internal and external constraints. There are also contingency theories that relate to decision making (Vroom and Yetton, 1973). The effectiveness of a decision process depends upon a number of aspects of the situation such as the importance of the decision quality and acceptance; the amount of appropriate information possessed by the leader and subordinate and the likelihood that subordinates will accept an autocratic decision or assist in trying to make a good decision if allowed to participate; the amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their preferred alternatives. Kurt Lewin and his colleagues did different leadership decision research in 1939 and acknowledged that there were three different styles of leadership, particularly about decision-making. Participative Style A leader who involves others in decision-making improves the perceptive of the issues involved by those who must carry out the decisions. Individuals are more committed to actions where they have been involved in the relevant decision-making. A leader will find that people are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on united goals. When people make decisions jointly, the social commitment to one another is greater and that increases their commitment to the decision. Several people deciding collectively make better decisions than one person alone. Autocratic In this case the leader takes decisions without consulting with others. A leader makes a decision without any form of consultation. In Lewins research he found that he this type of style caused the most level of discontent. An autocratic style works when there is no requirement for any input on the decision, In style it means that the decision would not change as a result of input, and where the driving force of people to carry out subsequent actions would not be affected whether they were or were not involved in the decision-making. Management Intervention There are always teams in organisations that are there and the possibility of getting different results. No matter how dedicated a team is there will be tim

Choose at least two social work theories; explain their main principles, advantages and disadvantages and apply them to the assessment, planning and intervention in one of the case studies provided below.

Introduction Recognition of the importance of evidence and theory-based practice in social work has grown in recent years (Webb, 2001). Their importance in this field of work should be encouraged as early as possible. Students of social work should be encouraged to explore theories that can not only help them to better understand and work with service users but also help them to handle personal issues that may arise through the course of their work (Trotter and Leech, 2003). This essay will explore the advantages and disadvantages of three theories that are currently applied to social work practice and use them in the assessment, planning and intervention of a case study. Social Learning Theory Social learning theory was first developed by Albert Bandura and colleagues (1961, 1963, 1977) after they observed that children had a strong tendency to imitate adult role models who exhibited either aggressive or non-aggressive behaviour toward a life-sized doll known as ‘Bobo’. Furthermore, this imitation behaviour was strengthened when the role model was the same sex as the child. Bandura et al. (1961, 1963) concluded that children learn behaviour through observing the behaviour of adults around them. Since these early studies, there have been numerous other papers supporting social learning theory, especially in the arenas of crime, violence and aggression (Akers et al., 1979; Foshee, Bauman and Linder, 1999; Pratt et al., 2010). Social learning theory is applicable to social work because it provides an easy to understand theory by which social workers can understand the behaviour of service users. It is a theory to which most people can relate and can provide a rel atively easy basis on which to build suitable interventions. Nevertheless, there were some concerns about the methodology of the Bobo doll study. For example, the study lacked ecological validity because the target of aggression was a toy and children may have been far less likely to have imitated aggression toward another person or an animal.AdvantagesA strength of social learning theory is its high applicability to real life. It is an easy to understand theory and the concepts are clear, and it can therefore be applied by most people in a wide range of situations. It has also been found to be successful in accounting for and explaining a wide range of behaviours including binge drinking (Durkin, Wolfe and Clark, 2005), police misconduct (Chappell and Piquero, 2004) and even software piracy (Higgins, 2006). Therefore, another strength of social learning theory is that it can be tested empirically because it is possible to develop a study design that can demonstrate whether or not i ndividuals learn behaviour through observing others carry out that behaviour. Social learning theory is able to account for the great variability of behaviour that individuals demonstrate and acknowledges that our reactions to different situations are likely to at least partly reflect the reactions displayed by significant others such as parents and friends.DisadvantagesOne criticism of social learning theory is that it focuses too heavily on social aspects. Our social environments and the behaviour of our role models do assert some degree of influence on our own behaviour. Despite this, there are numerous other influences that can serve to influence our behaviour and the way that we react to our surroundings. These may include genetics as well as the role of reinforcement (Skinner, 1948, 1958), by which some behaviours are repeated because they produce a positive outcome whereas others are ceased because they cause a negative outcome. Social learning theory also fails to adequately account for cultural influences on an individual’s learned behaviours. The theory also tends to downplay the cognitive processes of the child. It assumes that children will automatically copy any behaviour they have observed, without taking into account that the child may use other cognitive information to make a decision as to whether the behaviour should be copied or not. In the Bobo doll study by Bandura and his colleagues, children imitated aggressively toward the toy, but would have been likely to have used knowledge about wrong or right had they observed role models being aggressive to another person or an animal. Nor does the theory give an adequate explanation as to how social learning interacts with development. The theory cannot explain at which point in a child’s development social learning may become more or less influential on their behaviour. A final criticism of social learning theory is that it cannot explain behaviour demonstrated by children that the y have not observed. Social Learning Theory: Application to Case Study OneAssessmentAccording to the Community Care Act (1990), assessment by a social worker should be comprehensive, holistic, be needs led and include participation by both the service user and carer. Social learning theory can be applied to the assessment, planning and intervention for the family detailed in case study one in a number of different ways. The very early studies by Bandura and colleges applied social learning theory to aggression in particular. Case study one details that Jenny and Dave’s oldest child Sean exhibits aggressive behaviour at nursery. Assessment of this case using social learning theory would understand Sean’s behaviour to be a product of his environment and in particular, of the rocky and argumentative relationship that his parents have. In a study investigating the role of social learning on subsequent alcohol use and self-regulatory behaviours, Patock-Peckham et al. (2001) found that the parent ing style and behaviours of the parent who is the same sex as a child, is significantly related to that child’s self-regulation skills, which are known to be protective against alcohol use and abuse. This suggests that Sean is likely to adopt his father’s maladaptive drinking behaviours through the process of social learning. The early studies by Bandura et al. (1961, 1963) also reflected this more powerful effect of same sex models. The case study also details that Jenny was invited to attend a ‘Mother and Toddler’ group but did not take the offer up. It also appears as though neither Jenny nor Dave have integrated into their community and are not making the most of their social environment. Social learning theory can also be used to assess and understand the inharmonious relationship between Jenny and Dave, as the theory has been found to be useful in predicting intimate partner violence (Sellers, Cochran and Branch, 2005).Planning and InterventionA suitable intervention based on social learning theory would include educating both Jenny and Dave on the impact that their behaviour is likely to have on their children. Bearing in mind the finding that children tend to be more influenced by the behaviour of the parent of the same sex, Dave should be encouraged to model positive behaviours around Sean in particular and Jenny should be encouraged to attend the ‘Mother and Toddler’ group with Sarah to increase the number of positive interactions and behaviours Sarah is exposed to around other mothers and female role models. Secondly, Jenny and Dave must be encouraged to widen their social interactions in order to foster more positive social experiences, which in return should have a positive impact on their behaviours. Although her mother lives some miles away, Jenny should be encouraged to maintain contact with her in order maximise positive social interactions. It may also be advantageous to help Jenny and Dave explore how they may have learnt to deal with their marital problems using maladaptive behaviours such as verbal aggression, and to help them toward the realisation that although they may have observed significant others using these coping mechanisms, there are more adaptive techniques available to them.Social Conflict TheorySocial conflict theory is based strongly on the philosophy of the famous communist Karl Marx and holds that inequality within society is t he product of some individuals holding and actively defending a disproportionate share of society’s resources. As a result, those without many resources are controlled by those with the lion’s share. Therefore, social conflict theory sees society as greatly unequal and views social problems as the product of society’s issues, not the issues of the individual. One of the most famous empirical demonstrations of social conflict theory was by Sherif et al. (1961). A group of boys unknown to each other were randomly assigned to one of two groups and attended a summer camp. In the initial phase of the experiment, the two groups did not know of the others existence and were encouraged to bond as individual groups. Once an element of competition was introduced, each group became fiercely protective of their own group and both prejudiced and discriminatory behaviour was observed. The study demonstrated that when two groups are put in contest with each other over resource s this can trigger negative behaviours and attempts by competing groups to sabotage each other. Social conflict theory is applicable to social work because it captures the social injustices and inequalities that are often observed in this line of work. It can provide a framework for understanding why some individuals find themselves in constant financial and economic struggles and gives the social worker a better understanding of how they may change this and make a difference in people’s lives.AdvantagesUnlike many other theories, social conflict theory acknowledges the role of economics. This is especially useful for the field of social work because it avoids social workers from putting too much emphasis on the power held by the service user to make a change. It acknowledges that some elements cannot be controlled by the service user and may avoid frustration on behalf of the service user at the social worker not taking into that due to the social standing of the service user they will struggle to find employment opportunities that can change their financial situations. DisadvantagesSocial conflict theory is somewhat reductionist and does not account for the impact of individual thinking or behaviours. The theory sees individuals as a product of their socio-economic standing and cannot explain why many people from poor and deprived backgrounds go on to be successful and wealthy through hard work and determination, overcoming economic obstacles. There is empirical support for social conflict theory supporting its usefulness in aiding understanding of a number of different social constructs, including racial profiling by law-enforcement agencies (Petrocelli, Piquero and Smith, 2003). However, the theory is complex and is thus difficult to measure empirically. This is a key criticism of the theory because complexity adversely affects applicability in the real world. Social Conflict Theory: Application to Case Study OneAssessmentJenny and Dave’s situation can be assessed in the context of social conflict theory. Living in a housing estate, they are likely to be considered as belonging to the lower or working class. As a result, conflict theory would argue that their financial difficulties are due to only owning or having access to a small share of society’s resources. Dave’s employment status appears to be intermittent, which social conflict theory would argue is the result of opportunities being withheld from him by those higher up the economic ladder. The family’s lack of resources are clearly having a knock-on effect on the marriage, with Dave’s spending of the house money on gambling and drinking being a common source of arguments. Social conflict theory can also be applied to understand internal as well as external conflict. For example, high levels of parent-child conflict have been associated with child behavioural problems (El-Sheikh and Flanagan, 2001; El-Sheikh and Elmore-Stanton, 2004). Therefore, Sean’s aggressive behaviour at nursery could be a product of a perceived conflict between himself and his parents. Although Sean is young, his parents’ preoccupation with trying to cope with their poor financial situation may be interpreted by Sean as a lack of attention. This could explain why he acts poorly at nursery.Planning and InterventionBearing the principles of conflict theory in mind, intervention should take the form of enabling the family to increase their resources and the opportunities available to them. Dave should be encouraged to join some government funded courses to increase his skills and employability status. The family should be made aware of the huge number charities that of fer free and impartial advice on both debt and rent arrears. The family’s social worker should be sensitive to their economic standing and take it into account when working with them.Psychoanalytic TheoryOriginally developed by the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic theory seeks to explain how external struggles can impact upon an individual or their family to such a degree that they become internalised (Bower, 2005). The theory focuses on uniting both the strengths of an individual’s personality and available resources in order to optimise both their personal and interpersonal functioning (Hollis, 1977). Psychoanalytic theory can also be differentiated from other theories because of its inclusion of Freudian concepts such as the influence of unconscious mental processes and defence mechanisms (Brearley, 2007). One of the main principles of psychoanalytic theory is believing that our unconscious is largely responsible for our conscious actions, thought and feelings, and that awareness of these processes is rare (Greene and Uebel, 2008) Defence mechanisms can be either conscious or unconscious but are always deployed in order to help an individual avoid facing facts about themselves they perceive to be threatening (Jacobs, 2010). Contemporary psychoanalytic theory use in social work has tended to be based on ego psychology (Corey, 2000; Greene and Uebel, 2008), which emphasises the impact of our environment and the role of the ego’s problem-solving capacity in maximising adaptive behaviour. Psychoanalytic theory is applicable to social work and the assessment of service users because it embraces the social work ideal of acknowledging that both individual differences and the environment can have a negative impact on the individual. It may also help social workers to cope with difficult to manage or difficult to understand behaviour by acknowledging that some processes are unconscious on behalf of the service user.AdvantagesUnlike conflict theory that focuses on economic influences and social learning theory that focuses on social influences, psychoanalytic theory is far less reductionist meaning that it can be applied to a wider range of situations and individuals. The theory is somewhat more holistic than both social learning and conflict theory because it emphasises the importance of both internal and external factors and the influence these have on an individual’s ability to cope with everyday stresses. Indeed, early theorists argued that ego psychology in part icular struck an advantageous balance between acknowledging both individual and situational factors (Hamilton, 1958; Wood, 1971). Psychoanalytical theory has been the root of many other useful and currently practised social work models, such as transactional analysis, group therapy and crisis intervention (Trevithick, 2012). Therefore, it has had positive real-world and social work applications.DisadvantagesPsychoanalytic theory can be hard to test empirically, meaning that scientific evidence for both its validity and its effectiveness is lacking. However, it is not completely without evidence. For example, through observational methods, Beebe and Lachmann (2002) found that in support of psychoanalytic theory, infants learn much about their own emotional lives through empathically fuelled caregiver interactions. Nevertheless, Fonagy (2003) has argued that psychoanalytic theory has recently become too fragmented to be supported empirically and this fragmentation makes it a difficult theory to apply in a clinical or social work setting. This highlights another issue with psychoanalytic theory in that it is a com plex theory, which limits both its applicability and usefulness. Psychoanalytic theory is also considered to be quite controversial, although it has come a long way since the overt sexual themes pioneered by Freud. Despite being a more holistic theory, it could be argued that psychoanalytic theory does not adequately acknowledge the role of social influences in how individuals cope with their everyday life stresses. Psychoanalytic Theory: Application to Case Study OneAssessmentThere are a number of behaviours exhibited by Jenny and Dave that could be interpreted as defence mechanisms. Firstly, Dave both gambles and drinks, which causes friction between him and Jenny. Both of these behaviours could be interpreted as coping mechanisms that Dave uses to deal with the family’s financial and economic worries. Dave has said that the only thing wrong with their marriage is the â€Å"lack of intimacy† since their youngest was born. However, from an outside perspective, this is clearly an example of denial and a defence mechanism that Dave is using to avoid facing up to reality. Jenny’s spending of the household income on mail order catalogues is also a likely example of a maladaptive coping mechanism because the family cannot afford to spend money on luxuries.Planning and InterventionThe helping of others through the use of psychoanalytic theory has been described as â€Å"a correc tive emotional experience,† (Greene and Uebel, 2008, p. 64). Therefore, Jenny and Dave should be supported in developing adaptive emotional responses to the difficulties that their environment presents. They should be encouraged to externalise their financial troubles so that they do not control their emotions, which is likely to result in a continuation of negative behaviours, such as drinking, arguing and gambling. Psychoanalytic theory could be applied to this case study by helping Dave to optimise internal and more adaptive external forces to help him cope with the family’s stresses rather than turning to maladaptive behaviours, such as drinking and gambling. Dave should be encouraged to face up to the reality of the family’s situation and to explore ways in which he can cope in healthier ways. If Dave feels the need to escape now and again, he may be encouraged to take up a hobby or sport, which will give him time away from the family but avoid isolation. Conclusion Jenny and Dave’s situation can be interpreted through the use of various theories. A holistic approach in which the most applicable elements of each theory are used to help the family improve their financial and emotional well-being is recommended. References Akers, R.L., Krohn, M.D., Lanza-Kaduce, L. and Radosevich, M. (1979) Social learning and deviant behaviour: A specific test of a general theory. American Sociological Review, 44, pp. 636-655. Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S.A. (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), pp. 575. Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S.A. (1963) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66(1), pp. 3-11. Beebe, B. and Lachmann, F.M. (2002) Infant research and adult treatment: Co-constructing interactions. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press. Bower, M. (2005) Psychoanalytic Theory for Social Work Practice. Oxford, UK: Routledge. Brearley, J. (2007) ‘A Psychoanalytic approach to social work,’ in: J. Lishman (ed.) Handbook of Theory for Practice Teachers, London, UK: Jessica Kingsley. Chappell, A.T. and Piquero, A.R. (2004) Applying social learning theory to police misconduct. Deviant Behavior, 25(2), pp. 89-108. Corey, G. (2000) Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks Cole. Durkin, K.F., Wolfe, T.W. and Clark, G.A. (2005) College students and binge drinking: An evaluation of social learning theory. Sociological Spectrum, 25(3), pp. 255-272. El-Sheikh, M. and Flanagan, E. (2001) Parental problem drinking and children’s adjustment: Family conflict and parental depression as mediators and moderators of risk. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, pp. 417-432. El-Sheikh, M. and Elmore-Stanton, L. (2004) The link between marital conflict and child-adjustment: Parent-child conflict and perceived attachments as mediators, potentiators, and mitigators of risk. Development and Psychopathology, 16, pp. 631-648. Fonagy, P. (2033) Some complexities in the relationship of psychoanalytic theory to technique. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 72(1), pp. 13-47. Foshee, V.A., Bauman, K.E. and Linder, G.F. (1999) Family violence and the perpetration of adolescent dating violence: Examining social learning and social control processes. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(2), pp. 331-342. Greene, R.R. and Uebel, M. (2008) ‘Classical psychoanalytic thought, contemporary developments, and clinical social work practice,’ in: R.R. Greene (ed.) Human Behavior Theory and Social Work Practice, Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Hamilton, G. (1958) ‘A theory of personality: Freud’s contribution to social work,’ in: H.J. Parad (ed.) Ego, Psychology and Casework Theory, New York, NY: Family Service of America. Higgins, E. (2006) Gender differences in software piracy: The mediating roles of self-control theory and social learning theory. Journal of Economic Crime Management, 4(1), pp. 1-30. Hollis, F. (1977) Social casework: the psychosocial approach. Encyclopedia of Social Work. Washington: National Association of Social Workers. Jacobs, M. (2010) Psychodynamic Counselling in Action. London, UK: Sage. Patock-Peckham, J.A., Cheong, J., Balhorn, M.E. and Nagoshi, C.T. (2001) Social learning perspective: A model of parenting styles, self-regulation, perceived drinking control, and alcohol use and problems. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25(9), pp. 1284-1292. Petrocelli, M., Piquero, A.R. and Smith, M.R. (2003) Conflict theory and racial profiling: An empirical analysis of police traffic stop data. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, pp. 1-11. Pratt, T.C., Cullen, F.T., Sellers, C.S., Winfree Jr., L.T., Madensen, T.D., Daigle, L.E., Fearn, N.E. and Gau, J.M. (2010) The empirical status of social learning theory: A meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, 27(6), pp. 765-802. Sellers, C.S., Cochran, J.K. and Branch, K.A. (2005) Social learning theory and partner violence. A research note. Deviant Behaviour, 26(4), pp. 379-395. Sherif, M., Harvey, O.J., White, B.J., Hood, W.R. and Sherif, C.W. (1961) Intergroup conflict and cooperaton: The Robbers Cave experiment (Vol.10). Norman, OK: University Book Exchange. Skinner, B.F. (1948) Superstition in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38(2), pp. 168. Skinner, B.F. (1958) Reinforcement today. American Psychologist, 13(3), pp. 94. Trevithick, P. (2012) Social Work Skills and Knowledge: A Practice Handbook. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press. Trotter, J. and Leech, N. (2003) Linking research, theory and practice in personal and professional development: gender and sexuality issues in social work education. Social Work Education, 22(2), pp. 203-214. Webb, S.A. (2001) Some considerations on the validity of evidence-based practice in social work. British Journal of Social Work, 31, pp. 57-79. Wood, K.M. (1971) ‘The contribution to psychoanalysis and ego psychology,’ in: H.S. Strean (ed.) Social Casework Theory in Action, Metuchen, NJL Scarecrow.

A Gothic novel Essay

‘How far can we accept Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein as a typical example of the Gothic Tradition? Focus on specific examples of the genre to illustrate your answer. ‘ Many critics have named Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein as a Gothic novel. A traditional Gothic novel can be described as, ‘ tales of the macabre, fantastic and supernatural. ‘ In the beginning, the word Gothic implied ‘medieval’, but with time its meaning altered, until its emphasis lay on the macabre. Many of the best gothic novels show examples of invention and produce moments of horror far greater than pieces that are less emotive. Frankenstein fits into this category. Victor Frankenstein is an ambitious, although misguided inventor, looking to solve the secret of life. In her introduction, Mary Shelley declares her desire to ‘curdle the blood and quicken the beatings of the heart. ‘ This type of language immediately signals to the reader that Frankenstein should be placed in the gothic genre. Gothic novels are generally said to include some of the following elements. They should be set in a castle with an atmosphere of suspense and mystery, there should be supernatural or otherwise inexplicable events, am ancient prophecy, omens, portents, visions, high or overwrought emotion, women in distress or threatened by a powerful, impulsive, tyrannical male, and finally the metonymy of gloom and horror. Frankenstein does not really include any of these points to the excess. It is not set in a castle and the language cannot really be said to be mysterious, as we are narrated clearly throughout. Can it still be said to be a gothic novel, even without any of the conventional gothic traits? The term gothic covers a wide variety of texts and is by no means easy to define. It is not that straightforward to therefore relate Frankenstein to other gothic novels. However, some certain elements of Frankenstein can be determined as gothic, even though other parts may not fit the pattern.

Nursing Theory And Cultural Awareness Theory - 897 Words

As race and cultural awareness has been a prevalent issue throughout time, it has been a pressing issue in the healthcare industry as well, specifically in regards to nursing. Nurses have close and constant contact with the patients, working to protect them, provide treatment for them, and advocate for them both individually and with their families (American Nurses Association [ANA], 2010). Nursing theory is defined as an understanding of the various parts of nursing that relate to and describe nursing care. It provides a basis for comprehending the patient’s wishes for their healthcare in regards to their culture, race, heritage, etc. Fully grasping nursing theory allows healthcare providers to treat patients as best they can and to successfully communicate with their patients. Developed by Madeleine Leininger, the Culture Care Theory encompasses both nursing theory and cultural awareness theory. Her theory promotes both complete, unrestricted care, the ideal at the forefront of nursing practice, necessary for full and successful recovery (Potter, Perry, Stockert, Hall, 2013). Leininger began her education in 1948 acquiring her nursing diploma. Soon after, she obtained a Bachelor’s in nursing and a Master’s in mental and psychiatric nursing. In 1965, Leininger pursued a PhD in social and cultural anthropology, inspired by her experience working as a nurse at a child guidance home. 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